Empowering Women

Empowering Women, Developing Society: Female Education

In the last 10 years, the status of women in Saudi Arabia has been advanced by a number of policies and initiatives aimed at empowering them. These have been critical in creating a transformational societal change to the role of women, but they have not entirely created a shift in the situation of women. So, what is missing from Saudi Arabia’s steps to develop women’s rights? We are already seeing a difference in the situation of Saudi women through major decisions which have been brought about by the government. Some of the most remarkable of these have been permitting women to work buy targeted twitter followers as salespersons in stores and supermarkets and providing funding for young women to be educated in foreign universities, especially in the US and Europe. Arguably, these steps have created a cultural change inside the conservative society with regard to many issues, such as women working in a non-gender-segregated environment as, due to the above-mentioned law, the interaction between men and women is becoming more of a part of everyday life in the Kingdom. Apart from this, buy twitter followers for 5 it is also believed that typical Saudi families have become more accepting of women traveling and living alone abroad as a result of thousands of Saudi women traveling to study in universities overseas. Nevertheless, issues of concern, such as a lack of mobility, unemployment, family pressure and access to justice, continue to pose a challenge to the process of female empowerment, since there has been no actual change to them, buy 500 twitter followers which makes the already undertaken steps less meaningful to many women and girls. In my opinion, two major obstacles obstruct the process of women’s development in Saudi Arabia. Primarily, there is a lack of strategic “vision” behind ongoing government activities for empowering women. There appears to be a lack of long-term goals, which are driving the current decisions and initiatives, and it is not wholly clear where these decisions are heading. The ways can you buy twitter followers in which these steps are undertaken tend to be random and are not totally prioritized as to what in reality matters most to women. This can be demonstrated by the fact that women are expected to run for municipal election this year, but they are still not permitted to drive a car, buy active twitter followers which is something women have been demanding for over two decades. However, the traditional views of the religious institutions remain the biggest challenge to the government’s reforming actions.

“Truths” in flux and negotiation: female empowerment and the Arab Spring

The Arab Spring events called for a re-negotiation of the power/knowledge discourse. The resignation of all 18 al-Wifaq MPs from parliament left the lower house with buy instagram likes only 22 serving members. By-elections to the parliament were thus necessary for the continued buy likes on instagram performance of the system and for maintaining its legitimacy. Within the power/knowledge discourse analyzed previously, the election of female MPs would furthermore boost the system’s buy 50 instagram likes legitimacy on national and international levels. Indeed, 3 female MPs elected from the opposition-dominated districts joined the already serving MP La?ifa al-Qa?ud, buy instagram followers and likes an independent pro-government MP, in October 2011. The fact that the new MPs included the first female Shi‘a MP to ever serve in parliament made the case even stronger. Despite low electoral turnout, buy 100 instagram likes female political empowerment remained clearly the domain of the government, how to buy instagram likes and thus ultimately called for the re-negotiation of gender strategies buy instagram likes spread among opposition groups. The opposition represented various groups, and the movement was partially unstructured. Nonetheless, two political associations that had in the past participated in the political system joined the Arab Spring protests. They included a small secular, buy instagram likes fast liberal Wa?d (“Promise”) association and the previously mentioned Islamist society al-Wifaq that gathered a large number of followers; however their approach to female activism differed. Although Wa?d had fielded buy 20 instagram likes one female candidate in the past, the association had never won an election. On the other hand, members of al- Wifaq were divided over the buy instagram likes fast delivery issue of female candidates53; no females had ever been fielded partly due to political opportunism. In the quest for harnessing power through parliamentary elections, buy instagram likes and followers it was thought that female candidates would cost al- Wifaq seats thus go against its aim54. The official discourse grew more in favor of female empowerment after the Arab Spring as growing female engagement buy likes instagram in the opposition movement led al- Wifaq to reconsider its stand on female candidates. Women were included in the association’s secretariat and its leadership confirmed the opportunity to list female candidates if women desired to stand for future elections55. Despite being limited, buy likes for instagram these proclamations marked a change buy instant instagram likes as women’s participation in male-directed movements for political and social reforms can you buy likes on instagram had previously limited their ability to stress female empowerment issues.

Education: A Social Right and a Development Imperative

Education's importance has been emphasized by a number of instagram likes buy international conventions, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights how do you buy likes on instagram and the Programme of Action of the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development.2 The Fourth World Conference on Women, buy 50 likes on instagram held in Beijing in 1995, recognized that women's literacy is key to empowering women's participation in decisionmaking in society and to improving families' well-being.3 In addition, instagram buy likes the United Nations has articulated the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which include goals for improved education, gender equality, buy instagram likes for all pictures and women's empowerment (see Box 1 at end of article). The MDGs emphasize education's essential role in building democratic societies and creating a foundation for sustained economic growth. Education contributes buy followers and likes on instagram directly to the growth of national income by improving the productive capacities of the labor force. A recent study of 19 developing countries, can you buy instagram likes including Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia, concluded that a country's long-term economic growth increases by 3.7 percent for every year the adult population's average level of schooling rises.5 Thus, buy more likes on instagram education is a key strategy for reducing poverty, especially in the MENA region, where poverty is not as deep as in other developing regions.6 According to the United Nations Population Fund, buy real instagram followers and likes countries that have made social investments in health, family planning, and education have slower population growth and faster economic growth than countries that have not made such investments.

Cultural and Economic Factors That Reinforce the Gender Gap

MENA countries generally have lower levels of women's education buy automatic instagram likes and labor force participation than other regions with similar income levels. The interaction between the region's economic structure and its conservative culture, buy instagram followers and likes package in which traditional gender roles are strongly enforced, is largely responsible.9 Men in the MENA region are more likely buy likes and followers on instagram to have direct access to wage employment and control over wealth, while women are largely economically dependent upon male family members. The region's buy likes on instagram cheap oil-based economy, which produced tremendous wealth in some MENA countries, reinforces the region's gender roles. In a number of MENA countries, the use of capital-intensive technologies that require few workers, buy real likes on instagram along with relatively high wages for men, have precluded women's greater involvement in the labor force.10 Women's employment options have been limited to a small number of buy instagram likes free trial socially acceptable occupations and professions, such as teaching and medicine. In the Gulf states, jobs not considered appropriate for MENA women, such as waitressing, buy real likes on instagram are often filled by imported female laborers from South and East Asia. Gender discrimination in the MENA region is sometimes codified in law, frequently in family laws or civil codes. In many countries buy 30 instagram likes in the region, women must obtain permission from a male relative, usually a husband or father, buy fast instagram likes before seeking employment, requesting a loan, starting a business, or traveling. Such laws often grant women a smaller share of inherited family wealth. As a result, families tend to make greater investments in education for boys than for girls. The results buy instagram likes instantly of Egypt's 2000 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) provide insights into families' preferences for investing in their children's education. Women with children ages 6 to 15 were asked, "If parents have one son and one daughter and can send buy small instagram likes only one child to the university, which child should they send?" While 53 percent of the women said that the decision should depend on the children's capabilities, 39 percent said that the son should go how to buy followers and likes on instagram to the university, compared with only 8 percent who said that the daughter should go. The survey also found that mothers of children who had never attended school were more likely buy instagram likes cheap and fast to cite the cost of education as a reason for not educating their daughters than for not educating their sons.

Resistance to the power/knowledge discourse

Within the power structures described by Foucault, resistance aims not at eradicating power but at harnessing it. Also, resistance seeks acknowledgment of particular, subjective “truths”. In Bahrain, buy cheap likes on instagram resistance to the power/knowledge discourse focused on pushing for more progressive political reforms buy 100 instagram likes cheap that would grant society greater access to power. Consequently, buy likes on instagram free various opposition groups have used power-harnessing tactics through their participation in parliamentary elections and through direct action. 31Indeed, buy instagram followers and likes cheap the limited political liberalization reforms soon turned disappointing for some, as in comparison to the Constitution of 1973, the role of parliament was reduced in 2002. It was re-established as a bicameral body with a lower house elected through universal buy 100 likes on instagram suffrage and an upper house selected directly by the king. In the legislative system, the upper house has to approve all bills proposed by the lower house. Moreover, buy 1000 instagram likes the king can ultimately veto any bill. To show their discontent, Shi‘a political associations boycotted the parliamentary elections in 2002. This step buy instagram photo likes allowed Sunni candidates to dominate in parliament, while the system retained its legitimacy. Consequently, a new approach was sought and in 2006 the largest Shi‘a opposition group, al-Wifaq (“the Accord”), buy instagram picture likes announced its participation in the upcoming parliamentary elections. Nonetheless, harnessing power through established channels proved difficult. The Shi‘a opposition denounced gerrymandering best site to buy instagram likes that would give Sunnis a certain advantage in the elections. Furthermore, participation in the parliament was not a particularly fruitful experience as proposed bills were often rejected where to buy instagram likes by the upper house. In 2006 relations were further inflamed by a leaked report that allegedly implicated governmental buy spread instagram likes officials in a plan to naturalize Sunni citizens to weaken the Shi‘a majority. The participation of the opposition how to buy instagram followers and likes in the current political system may have been disappointing, leading to the formation of splinter buy instagram likes for all photos groups that would boycott the current political system and aim at harnessing power through direct actions

Official discourse and its contradictions in practice

The importance of women in the official discourse was highlighted buy instagram likes 50 by the introduction of Bahraini Women’s Day in 2008. Themes for the nationwide celebrations have included so far buy instagram followers likes women’s pioneering role and their success in promoting Bahrain worldwide (2008), women and health and security: midwives, buy 50 likes instagram nurses, technicians and doctors (2009), the role of women in voluntary work (2010), women in the national economy (2011) and women’s achievements in sports (2012). The themes partially reflect women’s empowerment in the economy how to buy likes for instagram as well as their participation in new domains in the public sphere. The day is an occasion to reward women buy instagram auto likes working in private and public companies. Furthermore, women’s achievements in breaking gendered stereotypes are highlighted in the local media. Newspapers devote several articles to presenting how can i buy likes on instagram female candidates running in the national elections and closely follow their campaigns. Similarly, women who break into the traditionally male-dominated jobs, such as female judges or female pilots buy more instagram likes are highly praised and draw a lot of media attention. Media promotion of women also included how they opened up new areas in the process of Bahrainization. Newspapers and magazines had in-depth how do i buy likes on instagram profiles of Bahraini women working as flight attendants for the national airline as a way to increase social acceptance of the job, usually performed by expatriate women. On the other hand, buy automatic likes on instagram Bahrainization strategies are sending women a clear message. A Tamkeen nationwide campaign adopted the slogan “Achieve your potential” (below). Although the same slogan was also addressed to Bahraini men, buy followers and likes instagram it suggests that women can also find fulfillment elsewhere than at home duties, through their involvement in professional careers.

Rebuilding schools and taking a stand for girls’ education

Addressing taboo issues exposed Qamar and his colleagues to danger. In KP and FATA provinces, buy instagram 50 likes Qamar estimates 80% of the region is controlled by Islamic militants. Their ultraconservative view that girls where to buy likes for instagram should only receive a basic Islamic education—if any at all—meant that girls’ schools became the target of attacks. But where the militants bombed, instagram followers and likes buy Qamar and Blue Veins brought the community together to rebuild, and provide chairs, toilet facilities, books and other materials needed to ensure girls would enrol and stay in school. In Qamar’s view, schooling for girls provides an important alternative to parents considering marrying off their daughters and when they are destroyed, buy instagram automatic likes he is determined to see them re-built. “In KP and FATA [provinces] there is resistance to girls’ education. Even today, 3 schools have been bombed. Most of them how can i buy instagram likes are turned into seminaries or religious schools for boys. When we are rebuilding girls’ schools, we are directly challenging the militants.”

Humanitarian emergency through the eyes of women

When floods devastated large areas of Pakistan in 2010, Qamar urged the government to take women’s concerns instagram buy followers and likes into consideration. Qamar noticed that the floods effected men and women differently, how do i buy instagram likes and pushed the government to establish a women’s desk to respond to the specific needs of women instagram likes buy fast in disaster relief situations. There are countless examples, from the most basic, best website to buy instagram likes that sanitary napkins were not included in hygiene kits distributed to women, to the biggest oversights, such as lacking reproductive health facilities, contraceptives and women’s representation in camp management, how to buy instagram likes and followers leading to further neglect of women’s issues. Insecurity in the camps also prompted an increase in child marriages, as concerned parents felt marriage would protect their where can i buy instagram likes daughters from harassment and violence. Qamar urged those running the camp to appoint female managers to monitor such issues. Thanks to Qamar’s efforts, the government has since committed to take a gendered-approach in all future disaster relief.

Change from within: Standing the test of time

Qamar believes strongly in giving communities the tools and advice instagram likes and followers buy they need to bring about their own change. People living in a community know their problems better than anyone else, but they must start by acknowledging concerns buy followers and likes for instagram of both men and women. By helping them break taboos, Qamar sets open and inclusive dialogue as the starting point for community discussions on important and difficult issues. A focus on gender helps buy instagram followers with likes communities to value the girl child and to foster an atmosphere in which child marriage cannot thrive. Yet after 18 years of working to improve conditions for women in his community, buy 300 instagram likes Qamar still thinks there is much to do. “I am not satisfied at all from our work, but when I see the change that I brought about in my house or in my family, that means a lot to me.” “My mother was beaten by my grandfather because she wanted to go to school. When I see buy monthly instagram likes my sisters going out by themselves, or getting ready to go to university, it gives me a good feeling. It inspires me that if it can happen within my family, which was very conservative, then it is possible buy likes on instagram fast delivery that change can happen in every family in Pakistan.”

Construction of women's empowerment indices in decision-making

We constructed two separate measures for overall women's empowerment, as well as for each of the empowerment dimensions as proposed in the framework above (figure 1). The classification of the buy auto instagram likes two measures was based on ‘women's independent’ and ‘couples’ joint’ decision-making on the aforementioned indicators. For the measure of overall empowerment for independent decision-making, we converted all indicators into binary variables where women were coded as ‘1’ if they decided on the above 13 items independently, buy auto likes on instagram and ‘0’ otherwise. Because the number of indicators varied from one empowerment dimension to the next - for example, the measurement of economic empowerment was based on six indicators, buy instagram likes monthly household empowerment on five, and the dimension of physical mobility on three – the contributions to the overall empowerment composite score were uneven. Therefore, we gave additional weight to the dimensions of ‘household decision-making’ and ‘physical mobility’ to reflect their equal contribution to the composition of the overall buy auto likes instagram empowerment measure. Thereafter, we constructed a composite score by adding the number of decisions. The total score ranged from 0–18, where a high score reflected a higher degree of decision-making power. The same procedure was repeated for the index of couples’ decision-making, where cases were coded as ‘1’ if couples took a joint decision, and ‘0’ otherwise. Using a similar strategy, we constructed two measures for each of the three buy likes and followers instagram dimensions of women's empowerment. The scores for household decision-making, economic decision-making and physical mobility ranged from 0–6, 0–4 and 0–3, respectively. The 13-item indexes for independent and joint decision-making were highly consistent, internally-reliable measures for women's empowerment with Kuder Richardson's value of 0.83 and 0.89, respectively.

What Expansion of Mandatory Schooling Can and Cannot Do in Conservative Muslim Societies

Does expansion of public education empower women? A large literature documents the positive effects of education on women’s economic and social outcomes in developed countries, but we can i buy instagram likes know less about its causal effects on women’s empowerment in Muslim societies where women’s participation in the labor market is limited and they often do not have control can i buy likes on instagram over their earnings or their own bodies (Doepke et al 2012). In fact, even though female education has been successfully expanding in many majority-Muslim countries, the number of legal rights enjoyed by women is few relative to men, and female labor-force participation remains low (UNDP 2005). The lack of a buy 100 likes instagram corresponding labor-force participation effect raises concerns over the efficacy of expanding education as a means of improving women’s rights in Muslim societies. On the other hand, buy instagram likes followers education has been shown to have many important non-pecuniary effects outside the labor market, such as in health, marriage, and parenting style (Oreopolous and Salvanes 2011) and to the extent that these effects help empower women, they may constitute alternative mechanisms through which education may lead to women’s empowerment (even in the absence of large labor market returns). However, most of this research comes from countries buy twitter followers and societies that are not majority-Muslim and where women do work to a larger degree. As such, disentangling non-pecuniary returns to education from its labor market (and thus pecuniary) returns is particularly challenging buy twitter followers cheap in most settings and whether education may empower women in the Muslim world remains an open question. Even though scholars debate the fundamental causes for the buy real twitter followers severe degrees of gender inequality in Muslim societies, most posit a nexus of patriarchal culture, strong religious values, and restricting social norms as proximate explanatory factors. Historically, buy followers on twitter Lewis (1961) claims women’s status was “probably the most profound single difference” between Muslim and Christian civilizations. In more contemporary cross-country studies, Fish (2002) documents a negative cross-country correlation between having an “Islamic religious tradition” and female empowerment, how to buy twitter followers while Barro and McCleary (2006) also show that Muslim countries tend to exhibit higher degrees of religious participation and beliefs. Comparing the effects of a business twitter followers buy training program on female entrepreneurship among Hindu and Muslim women in India, Field et al (2010) find evidence in line with significantly stricter constraints to female labor-force participation among Muslim women. To the extent that barriers to entry due to religious values restrain women’s rights, buy cheap twitter followers an integral outcome of empowerment is therefore a woman’s ability to independently assert her own beliefs. In a recent paper, Selim Gulesci and I exploit an extension of compulsory buy more twitter followers schooling in Turkey to estimate the causal effect of schooling on female empowerment (Gulesci and Meyersson 2014). Compulsory schooling laws have been extensively how to buy followers on twitter used to estimate returns to education in Western countries on labor market outcomes (Angrist and Krueger, 1991, Oreopoulos 2006), health and fertility (McCrary and Royer 2011, buy twitter followers for $5 Lleras-Muney 2005, Black et al 2008) among others. We follow a similar strategy to provide meaningful causal parameters for the effect of a year of schooling on outcomes related to social status buy 100 twitter followers of women in Turkey, a majority-Muslim country.